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CUBA 

PUERTO RICO 
HAWAII 

PHILIPPINES 




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CUBA. 

Physical Features. — The island of Cuba is situated directly in 
front of the broad entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, and its western 
extremity is ahuost midway between the peninsulas of Yucatan 
and Florida. It is the larg'est of a great chain of islands which, 
extending eastwardly a distance of 1,350 miles from the Gulf, con- 
stitute a peculiar geographic region distinct in many of its characters 
from the regions that are adjacent to it. These islands may be 




Longitude 



described as a partially submerged range of mountains — the back- 
bone, perhaps, of an ancient continent which now forms the bottom 
of the sea. This mountain range is highest at its middle part, that 
is, in eastern Cuba, western Haiti, and northeastern Jamaica. It is 
lowest at its two extremities — in western Cuba and the easternmost 
of the Virgin Islands, where, with the exception of a few isolated 
hills, it rises but slightly above the present level of the sea. The 
loftiest peaks are in Haiti and reach an altitude of nearly 11,000 
feet. In Cuba the loftiest summits are those of the Sierra Maestra, 
where the Pico de Tarquino attains an elevation of 7,750 feet. 
The mountains are, in the main, composed of masses of noncal- 
careous formations and igneous rocks. Below 2,0X)0 feet they are 
flanked by a succession of horizontal terraces, the results of various 
general uplif tings and subsidences alternating Avith long periods of 
rest. We may conceive of these islands, therefore, as consisting of 



> ^ 



2 CUBA. 

mountain peaks and terraces, the lowermost and broadest of these 
terraces determining the area and, to some extent, the configuration 
of each. 

The island of Cuba is long and narrow. The Spaniards have 
compared its shape to that of a bird's tongue ; others have likened it 
to a cornucopia ; and still others have described it as an irregular 
crescent with its convex side on the north. Its length is 720 miles — 
equal to the distance from jS"ew York to Cincinnati ; its average 
breadth is 80 miles. Its area, including the 1,300 keys or coastal 
islands which belong to it, is nearly 46,000 square miles. It is, 
therefore, a little larger than the state of Pennsylvania. Its coast 
line, measuring all its meanderings, has a total length of nearly 
7,000 miles. 

The coast is generally low and bordered by coral formations 
and parallel lines- of coral reefs and coral isles. From the shore 
broad meadows and fertile plains extend inland until met by the 
slopes and foothills of the central mountain range. There are no 
great stretches of sand, as often occur in lands bordering the sea, 
and the proportion of marshy lands is small. In some places, 
especially in the eastern part, the highlands approach nearer to the 
shore and occasionally present a bold headland to the sea. Ac- 
cording to Humboldt the general physical aspect of the interior is 
" gently undulating and, like that of England, not more than 280 to 
380 feet above the level of the sea." The longest mountain range is 
the Sierra de los Organos, which extends from the western province 
of Pinar del Rio eastwardl}', nearly parallel with the axis of the 
island. "With its eastern continuation of hills, it forms the chief 
watershed of the island. This range nowhere rises to a ver}^ great' 
height, its loftiest peak having an elevation of only 2,500 feet. Near 
the middle of the island there is a broad depression, forty-seven 
miles in width, extending from shore to shore, and occupied by 
low-lying plains. This is the natural dividing line between East 
Cuba and West Cuba. The highest mountains, as before stated, are 
the Sierra Maestra, which extend along 'the straight east-and-west 
coast of Santiago de Cuba. The eastern third of this range is called 
the Sierra del Cobre. 

The general course of the rivers is either north or south, and all 
are, of course, short. The Rio Cauto, however, the largest on the 
island, flows in a westerly direction and, after a Avinding course of 
150 miles, falls into the Bay of Manzanillo. On the north the 
largest river is the Sagua la Grande. 



CUBA. 3 

Climate. — As Cuba lies wholly within the torrid zone, the climate 
of those parts next to the sea is similar to that of other tropical coun 
tries. In the elevated mountainous districts, however, a milder 
atmosphere prevails and the weather is far more agreeable. At 
Havana the average temperature, taking the year round, is about 77°. 
The warmest months are July and August, when the mercury ranges 
between 88° and 76°, and indicates an average temperature of 82°. 
The coldest months are December and January, when the tempera- 
ture seldom falls below 58° or rises above 78°, but maintains an 
average of about 72°. In the interior, however, the nights are 
frequently cool, and in January frost sometimes occurs and the mer- 
cury falls to the freezing point. Only once in the history of the 
island has snow been known to fall, and that was in 1854. 

As in most tropical countries, there are here two seasons in the 
year — a wet, from May to October, and a dry, during our winter ; 
yet there is no month in which rain does not fall, and there are 
instances on record of years in which more rain has fallen during the 
so-called dry season than during the wet. The average yearly rain- 
fall at Havana is 51.73 inches, which is only 7 inches greater than 
that at Washington. The prevailing wind is the northeast trade 
wind, but in January and February cool northerly winds, called 
" northers," are occasionally experienced in the western portion of 
the island. Thunderstorms are frequent, but they do not usually 
produce much damage. Severe tropical storms, or hurricanes, are of 
almost annual occurrence, being most common in August, September, 
and October. These are of ten very destructive. In 1896 a hurricane 
destroyed nearly all the banana plantations in the east. Earthquakes 
are frequent in eastern Cuba, but are seldom felt in the western 
parts. 

In general, the climate of Cuba is much more healthful than is 
commonly reported. Much of the disease peculiar to the island is 
the result, not of unhealthful climatic conditions, but of neglect of 
drainage and other sanitary precautions. During the winter months 
the weather is ideally perfect, and in summer it is less oppressive 
than in many parts of the United States. 

Productions and Resources. — The soil is of remarkable rich- 
ness and is practically inexhaustible. In many places the same crops 
have been grown on the same land for a hundred years or more, 
without the use of fertilizers, and yet the ground has not been im- 
poverished. The chief agricultural products are sugar cane, tobacco, 
and coffee. The cultivation of suo^ar cane was introduced in 1523, 



4 CUBA. 

thirty years after the discoyery of the ishind. It has eyer since been 
the most important industry. Preyious to the beginning of the 
reyolution in 1895, the entire middle portion of the island, from Rio 
Cauto to Pinar del Rio, except where too mountainous, was literally 
one yast field of cane. The plantations were of yarious extent, 
ranofino: from 100 to 1,000 acres each, and their cultiyation enraa^ed 
the labor of large numbers of men. It is estimated that if all the 
land in Cuba suitable to the growth of sugar cane were deyoted to 
that industry, it might fully supply the whole Western Continent. 
Already, in spite of the obstacles which haye hindered the deyelop- 
ment of eyery branch of agriculture, the island has produced in a 
single year more than 1,000,000 tons of sugar. 

Tobacco grows well in all parts of the island, but the best is 
produced in the region west of Hayana and along the southern 
slopes of the Sierra de los Organos. The tobacco here grown is 
famous all oyer the world and is unequaled in quality by an}' other. 
In 1893 the exports of tobacco from Cuba were reported as 6,160,000 
pounds of leaf and 13-J:,210,000 cigars. 

The first coffee plantation was established in 1727, the trees 
being obtained from seed brought from Martinique. The cultivation 
of coffee was until recently an extensive industry, and considerable 
quantities were exported. The mountain sides and hills in the 
eastern part of the island are especially adapted to this industry. 
Although some coffee is still raised, the trees on most of the planta- 
tions have been destroyed in order to make room for tobacco or 
sugar cane, which can be cultivated with greater profit. 

Oranges grow spontaneously in all parts of the island, and were 
formerly exported in considerable quantities. Bananas are cultivated 
in the eastern provinces, and pineapples are abundant in the west, 
and especially in the Isle of Pines. 

Although rice and Indian corn are indigenous to Cuba, the soil 
is not favorable to the cultivation of cereals, and but little attention 
is paid to them. There is not a single flour mill on the island. 

During the last war of the Cubans with Spain nearly every 
industry was practically destroyed. The cane fields were abandoned 
and became overgrown with underbrusii and weeds, and in 1897 the 
total product of sugar did not exceed 35,000 tons. The tobacco 
plantations have suffered in the same way, and the output of leaf 
tobacco and cio:ars is less than one fifth of what it was before the 
war. During the period of prosperity in Cuba, there were exten- 
sive cattle farms, cotton plantations, orchards and market gardens, 



CUBA. 5 

chocolate plantations, and bee farms ; but all these have been partly 
or wholly destroyetl. 

Forest Products. — Although Cuba was settled nearly four hun- 
dred years ago. primeval forests still cover one half its area, or about 
13,000,000 acres. These forests abound in trees remarkable for their 
size, foliage, and fragrance. Of palm trees there are over thirty 
different species. Pines are abundant in the western part and in 
the Isle of Pines. Amono^ the hard woods of g'reat value are the 
mahogany, lignum vitge, granadilla, sabicu, Cuban ebony, and many 
others. Here also grow logwood, redwood, and the odorous cedar, 
which is used for cigar boxes and linings of cabinet work. 

Mineral Resources. — The mineral resources of Cuba are still 
to a large extent undeveloped. Copper was mined by the natives 
before the island was discovered b}' Columbus. In the Sierra 
Maestra range, a few miles from Santiago, there are rich mines of 
this metal, which formerly produced 50 tons per day. From them 
an average of more than $2,000,000 worth of copi)er ore was shipped 
annually to the United States. They are now partly filled with 
water and worked only to a limited extent. The iron mines, also 
near Santiago, are of great importance. They are controlled b}^ 
American companies, and produce from 30,000 to 50,000 tons of 
iron ore per month, most of which is shipped to manufactories in 
Pennsylvania. This ore is said to produce from 62 to 67 per cent, 
of pure iron. On the south coast, between Santiago and Manzanillo, 
large deposits of manganese have been discovered. Before the war, 
mines were opened and a railroad was built for the transportation 
of the mineral to the seacoast ; but all operations were stopped by 
the insurgents. 

Near Santa Clara is a large deposit of asphaltum, which for forty 
years has supplied material for making the gas with which that city 
is lighted. Near Cardenas, submerged by the sea, is found a fine 
variety of pure asphaltum, which is used in the United States for the 
manufacture of varnish. Other large deposits of this mineral are 
known to exist, but have never been utilized. 

Neither o-old nor silver has been found in anv considerable 
quantities. The Spaniards who first came to the island sent large 
amounts of gold to Spain, but this had been wrested from the 
natives, who had probably been centuries in collecting it. In 1827 
silver mines were opened in Santa Clara, which produced nearly 
half a pound of pure silver to every hundred pounds of ore ; but 
these mines have ceased to be productive. 



6 CUBA. 

Coal is abundant in many parts of the island, and is chiefly of a 
bituminous character. In the Isle of Pines a fine quality of marble 
is obtained, which is susceptible of a very high polish. 

Manufactures and Commerce. — Manufactures were never 
encouraged by the Spaniards, and the people have heretofore pre- 
ferred to exchange the products of the soil for goods already manu- 
factured. Hence there are no mills nor factories of any impor- 
tance in the island. There are about 1,000 miles of railway, but 
the means of communication between the different cities and towns 
are exceedingly limited. The roads are chiefly little more than 
paths. Goods are conveyed into the interior by means of ox carts 
and pack mules. The only carriage used outside of the cities is 
a peculiar two-wheeled vehicle called a volante. 

No other island in the world, in proportion to its size, has a 
greater number of excellent harbors ; and ^^et there is but little com- 
munication with the neighboring islands, and foreign commerce 
is comparatively limited. By far the greater part of the trade has 
been with the United States, amounting in 1896 to something more 
than $47,000,000, but in 1897 to only $26,000,000. The principal 
exports are sugar, tobacco, tropical fruits, molasses, and lumber. 
The imports consist mainly of wheat from the United States, jerked 
beef from South America, rice from Spain and the East Indies, wine 
and olive oil from Spain, petroleum from the United States, and 
British, German, and American manufactured articles. About 1,200 
vessels sail from Havana each year, and lines of steamers connect 
that port with American and European cities. 

History and People. — Cuba was discovered by Columbus on 
the 28th of October, 1492, and was named by him Juana, in honor 
of Prince John, the son of Ferdinand and Isabella. It was after- 
wards known by various names, as Fernanilina, Santiago, and Ave 
Maria. It finally retained the designation by which it was known 
among the natives at the time of its discoverv — Cuba. The first 
permanent settlement was made by Diego Columbus (the son of 
Christopher) at Baracoa in 1511. Havana was founded in 1519. 
For two centuries the history of the island is but little more than 
an account of its defense against successive invasions by the French, 
English, and Dutch. In 1762 Havana was captured by the English 
under Lord Albemarle after a siege of more than two months' 
duration. The spoil that was divided among the victors amounted 
to nearly $4,000,000. By the treaty of Paris, in the following year, 
the island was restored to Spain. Since 1808 Cuba has been ruled 



CUBA. 7 

by governor captains-general appointed by the Spanish government 
and vested with ahuost absokite power. The tyranny of these 
governors, oppressive taxation, and the deprivation of political 
rights, have led to many uprisings and rebellions among the Cubans. 
The most noted of these were the "Black Eagle" conspiracy in 
1829, the negro insurrection in 1844, the rebellion of Narciso Lopez 
in 1844, the ten years' revolution which began in 1868, and the 
last war for independence, 1895-98. In 1848 President Polk pro- 
posed to Spain to transfer Cuba to the United States for a considera- 
ation of $100,000,000. In the United States senate in 1858 a bill 
was offered proposing to buy the island for $30,000,000 — but was 
withdrawn before coming to a vote. By the terms of the protocol 
agreed upon between Spain and the United States in September, 
1898, Spain relinquished all claims to sovereignty over her West 
Indian possessions, and the United States assumed jurisdiction over 
Cuba pending the establishment of a government by the people. 

The latest census of Cuba, published in 1887, gave the popula- 
tion as 1,631,687, of whom 520,384, or about one third, were colored. 
It has been estimated that during the last war no fewer than 800,000 
of the inhabitants perished. The people of Cuba are divided into 
three classes, — the native Spaniards (of whom there are about 30,000, 
chiefly in Havana) ; the Creoles, who form the better class of native 
Cubans, and are planters, farmers, and traders ; and the negroes, 
most of whom are descendants of slaves imported from Africa during 
the present century. Of the last-named class nearly one half are 
mulattoes. There are also about 30,000 Chinese male laborers in 
the island. 

Education and Religion. — Education is much neglected. It is 
estimated that not more than one tenth of the children are regularly 
instructed in schools, and that about 70 per cent, of the people are 
entirely illiterate. Under Spanish rule there was a royal university 
at Havana, with medical and law schools, and also a smaller institu- 
tion, known as the Royal College of Havana. In all the cities 
several private schools are maintained, but these are only for the 
rich. All the learned professions, as well as all offices of honor or 
profit, have hitherto been occupied by Spaniards. 

Under Spanish rule, the Roman Catholic was the only religion 
recognized in the island. All ecclesiastical affairs were under the 
jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Havana. 

Cities. — Havann, the capital and largest city, is '"^uated on the 
south and west sides of the capacious harbor of the same name. 



S CUBA. 

Having been for centuries the seat of the Spanish government in the 
island, it has some of the manners and the gay appearance of a 
European capital. Its wharves, fortifications, hospitals, churches, 
and government buildings are all worthy of notice. The beauty and 
picturesqueness of the city are enhanced by its numerous pleasure 
grounds and parks. During times of peace the streets and quays 
are thronged with busy life. Most of the foreign trade of the island 
passes through this port and aggregates more than $50,000,000 
annually. The population is about 200,000. 

Santiago, or Saint Jago, as it is called by the Cubans, is the 
second city in size and commercial importance. It is situated in the 
southeastern part of the island, in the province of the same name, 
and is in the immediate neighborhood of the iron and copper mines. 
Its population is given as about 60,000. 

Other important places are Matanzas (27,000), on the north 
coast, east of Havana; Pinar del Eio (21,770), in the western part; 
Puerto Principe (46,640) and Cienfuegos (27,430), in the central part, 
the former being the chief interior city of Cuba, while the latter is 
situated on a fine bay of the southern coast ; and Holguin (34,760) 
and Manzanillo (23,200), in the eastern part. 



PUERTO RICO. 



Physical Features. — The island of Puerto Rico is a little 
farther south than Cuba, the latitude of its most northern point 
being 18° 30' N., while that of the most southern point of Cuba is 
19° 20' N. Its westernmost cape, Punta del Jiguero, is in longitude 
67° 10' W., being 425 miles from Cape Maysi, the easternmost point 
of Cuba. The distance on a straight line from New York to Puerto 
Rico is about 1,350 miles, or nearly the same as from New York to 




Ht^oyo PUERTO RICO 



R I B B E A N 



SEA 



SCALE OF MILES 



Longitude 



66 Greenwich 



Topeka, Kansas. The center of the island is exactly south of the 
eastern part of Maine. The nearest mainland is that of Venezuela, 
420 miles due south. 

In size Puerto Rico is the smallest of the four islands known as 
the Greater Antilles, its area being only 3,531 square miles, or about 
one twelfth that of Cuba. In shape it much resembles the state of 
Connecticut, although it is not so large by some 1,400 square miles, 
and its bounding lines are of course more irregular. Its average 
length is 95 miles; its average breadth, 35 miles. 

A range of hills traverses the island from east to west. These 

nowhere attain any great height, except in the extreme northeast, 

where the peak known as El Yunque, or " the anvil," rises to an 

altitude of more than 3,600 feet. The whole northeastern half of the 

island is rugged and uneven, and the central range or cordillera is 

bordered on both sides by innumerable round-topped hills which 

9 



10 PUEKTO RICO. 

give to the landscape a peculiar and most impressive appearance. 
These hills, however, are not rocky and barren, but are covered with 
a luxuriant vegetation and may be cultivated to their very summits. 
As they lie in the course of the northeast trade winds, and frequently 
intercept the moisture-laden clouds which accompanj' these winds, 
the nortliern part of tlie island receives more rain than the southern. 
From the hills and elevated interior more than 1,200 streams flow to 
the sea, and of these 47 are said to attain the length and volume of 
considerable rivers. The longer streams are in the north. In the 
south, droughts sometimes occur, and in a few districts artificial irri- 
gation has been found necessary. 

Climate. — The climate does not differ materially from that of 
other tropical countries. There being no large areas of marshland 
or other miasmatic regions, the conditions are generally more health- 
ful than in Cuba. The average temperature during the summer 
months is 83°; during the winter months 76°. The thermometer 
seldom registers above 90°. The hottest months are June, Julv, 
August, and September, but the mean monthly temperature through- 
out the year varies not more than 7°. 

The average rainfall for the past twenty j^ears has been 59.5 
inches, or about the same as that at New Orleans. The driest 
month is February ; the rainiest is November. Rain falls most 
frequently between noon and 4 o'clock p.m., and xery seldom at 
night. The prevailing winds are from the east and north ; and 
tropical hurricanes are not uncommon between July and October. 

Vegetation and Agricnlture. — Most of the hills are well 
wooded, the native forests still covering their summits. Here flourish 
immense gum trees and many varieties of palms and tree ferns. 
Other trees, valuable for lumber, exist in great numbers. Among 
these are the mahogan}', tiie cedar, the walnut, and the laurel, besides 
many less familiar varieties. In some districts may be found a species 
of cocoloba, called by the natives "ortegon," which is remarkable for 
its immense purple spikes ; the stately sabrino tree, covered with white 
odorous flowers and silvery leaves ; and another unnamed tree, con- 
spicuous for its large purple flowers. Ever\'where grow trees and 
shrubs valuable for their fruit or for their medicinal qualities. 
Cocoanut palms, tamarinds, prickly pears, guavas, mangoes, and all 
kinds of tropical fruit trees abound. Among the cultivated plants, 
bananas are among the most common and profitable. They begin to 
bear within ten months from planting and are said to continue 
producing fruit for sixty years. Two hundred millions of bananas 



PUERTO RICO. 11 

are said to be produced annually. Other fruits which grow in great 
abundance are oranges, limes, cocoanuts, and pineapples. 

The coffee tree thrives best on the hillsides a thousand feet 
above the level of the sea. Its cultivation was begun in 1722, when 
some plants were introduced here from the island of Martinique. In 
some districts there are now extensive plantations, and more than 
34,000,000 pounds are produced annuall3^ Sugar cane also thrives 
on the uplands and is cultivated to an altitude of 3,000 feet. The 
amount of sugar produced from a given area is, on an average, 
greater than in any other West Indian island. The total annual 
product of the Puerto Rican plantations is estimated at 140,000,000 
pounds. The lowlands are peculiarly favorable to the cultivation of 
tobacco, of which more than 7,000,000 pounds have been produced in 
a single year. Most of it was formerly sent to Cuba to be made 
into cigars. Rice forms the chief food of the laboring- classes and is 
of a mountain variety, flourishing best, not on the wet lowlands, as in 
our Southern states, but on the hillsides. Indian corn is here in its 
native home and grows with but little cultivation. 

There are but few large plantations, the land being mostly 
divided into small holdings, of which there are said to be more than 
twenty-one thousand. 

Large herds of cattle are pastured on the lowland plains, and 
many beeves are exported to the neighboring islands. Horses of a 
small but superior breed are also raised in considerable numbers. 
All kinds of domestic fowls are abundant and require but little care. 
A good deal of attention is paid to bee-keeping, and the value of the 
honey exported annually from the island exceeds half a million 
dollars. 

Aiiiuial Life. — There are no beasts of prey in Puerto Rico, and 
no wild animals larger than the armadillo. There are many reptiles, 
especially lizards, but none that are poisonous. Birds are multitudi- 
nous in variety and are noted both for tlieir fine sino-ing- and for the 
beauty of their plumage. The climate is favorable to insects, and 
these are so numerous as to be the most serious drawback to the 
otherwise almost perfect conditions of life on the island. The most 
formidable among these pests are centipeds, scorpions, tarantulas, 
mosquitoes, ants, ticks, and wasps. Intolerable as these are to 
strangers, the natives, having always been accustomed to them, 
appear to be but little annoyed by their presence. 

Minerals. — The mineral resources, although they have never been 
fully investigated, are probably not very extensive. The Spaniards, 



12 PUERTO RICO. 

when they first took possession of the island, found grains of gold 
amons: the sands of some of the riv^ers; and it is said that the natives 
still obtain the metal in small quantities by washing the gravel of the 
mountain streams. Copper, iron, and lead have been found, but in 
quantities too small to pay for the mining. Coal has also been dis- 
covered. Considerable salt has been obtained from the small saline 
lakes near the seashore. 

Commerce. — A railroad around the island, having a total length 
of about -iOO miles, has been begun, and a section of it, 137 miles in 
length, is now completed and in operation. There are nearly 500 
miles of telegraph lines in use, connecting all the more important 
places. Under the Spanish rule these were controlled by the govern- 
ment. The roads are generally much better than those in Cuba, 
and public highwaj^s, aggregating 150 miles in length, radiate from 
the principal cities. An excellent macadamized road connects San 
Juan and Ponce. Transportation to places removed from the public 
hisfhwavs is effected almost alto^^ether on horseback. 

The principal harbors are those of San Juan and Arecibo, on the 
north coast ; of Ponce, Arroyo, and Gua3'anilla, on the south ; of 
Aguadilla and Mayaguez, on the west ; and of Humacao and Fajardo, 
on the east. 

The chief exports from the island are coffee, sugar, tobacco, and 
honey. The value of all the exports in 1895 was $14,629,4:94. The 
total imports during the same year were valued at $16,155,056. 
More than one third of the entire trade was with Spain. 

History. — Puerto Rico was discovered by Columbus when on his 
second voyage, November, 1493. The natives called the island 
Borinquen. In 150S Ponce de Leon visited the island, and was 
delighted with the beauty of its scenery and the hospitality of its 
people. Two years later he returned and began to form a settle- 
ment at the place now called Pueblo Viejo, but abandoned it for the 
more favorable harbor of San Juan, where, in 1511, he founded the 
city of San Juan Bautista. The island, according to the reports of 
the Spaniards, was then almost as thickly populated as it is now, 
the number of natives being estimated at 600,000. Like most of the 
West Indian aborigines, they were a gentle and inoffensive people, 
and received their strangle visitors with o^reat demonstrations of 
delight. But when the Spaniards reduced many of them to slavery 
and compelled them to woi'k in the mines, they rebelled, and, in the 
short but disastrous war which followed, were subdued and wholly 
destroyed. So complete was their annihilation that it was long 



PUERTO RICO. 13 

believed that no trace of them remained. Since 1856, however, 
archeologists have discovered and collected many interesting objects, 
such as spear heads, stone and clay images, and fragments of pottery, 
which doubtless were the work of these unfortunate people. 

Ponce de Leon built for himself a castle on the point of land 
above the inouth of the harbor of San Juan, to which he gave the 
name of Casa Blanca; and here he lived until he sailed on the 
famous voyage which resulted in the discovery of Florida. Spain 
paid but little attention to the island. The settlements increased but 
slowly, and Avere more than once in danger of destruction. In 1529 
the eastern coasts were ravaged by the Caribs, and the southern by 
French pirates. In 1595 Sir Francis Drake captured and sacked 
San Juan ; and three years later the Duke of Cumberland made 
another attack upon the place, but with less success. During the 
seventeenth century both English and Dutch made repeated attempts 
against it, but were uniformh^ repulsed. The Puerto Ricans were 
also obliged to defend themselves against the incursions of the pirates 
and buccaneers who infested the West Indian waters. The fortifi- 
cations of San Juan, even at the time of Sir Francis Drake, were 
said to be of remarkable strength, mounting seventy pieces of artillery, 
with thirty -four in the great morro or castle. The inhabitants have 
always regarded the place as impregnable. In 1797 the English 
made a last attempt upon San Juan, and after a three days' siege 
Avere obliged to retire. In ISTO the island was declared to be a 
province of Spain, and was divided into seven departments : Agua- 
dilla, Mayaguez, Arecibo, Ponce, Bayamon, Guayama, and Humacao. 
In 1873, slavery, which had existed since the first settlement, was 
abolished. In 1898 the island was formallv ceded by Spain to the 
United States. 

People. — The last official census of Puerto Rico was taken in 1887, 
and showed a population of abou^ 800,000. More than 300,000 of the 
inhabitants are negroes. The density of population is somewhat 
o:reater than in the state of Connecticut, there beina: an averasfe of 
235 people to the square mile. Di-. Carl ]\Iauch, a German explorer, 
who spent some time in the island in 1875, describes the wretched 
condition of the rural population, which is composed largely of freed- 
men and the descendants of former slaves. They live, he says, " in 
miserable bamboo and palm-leaf hovels, in the midst of the most 
delightful scenery. The}'' do no work beyond planting a few 
bananas and sweet potatoes and a little rice. Some poultry that 
they possess, swine, perhaps a cow, but in all cases a horse, mule, or 



14 PUERTO RICO. 

donkey, bring them in barely enough to clothe them and keep them 
alive. It seems as if they were reverting to the primitive state of 
their forefathers, transplanted hither from Africa." 

Much superior to these in energv and in their manner of living 
are the gibaros, or small landowners in the country districts. They 
are an interesting people, descended from old Spanish stock, with a 
considerable admixture of native Indian blood. The labor on the 
large plantations is mostly performed by them. The planters, traders, 
and wealthy stockraisers form a still higher class, many of them 
being of pure Spanish descent. They are proud of their descent, and 
are generally happy and prosperous. Besides these, there are nu- 
merous other people of European origin — Uermans, Swedes, Danes, 
Russians, Frenchmen, descendants of Moorish Jews, and natives of 
the Canary Islands. The inhabitants of the island, considered as 
individuals of a great communit}^ have been described as " affable, 
generous, and hospitable to a fault. The}^ are well proportioned and 
delicately organized ; at the same time they lack vigor, are sIoav and 
indolent, possess vivid imaginations, are vain and inconstant, and 
ardent lovers of liberty." 

Education. — There are 500 primar}^ schools on the island, and 
yet but a small proportion of the children attend school, and education 
is regarded with but slight favor. There are in the cities a few 
secondary schools, and in San Juan two colleges. All these, except 
a few private schools, are under ecclesiastical control. 

Cities. — San Juan Bautista, generally known as San Juan, or San 
Juan de Puerto Rico, is the capital. It is situated on the north coast 
at the western end of a small island which is connected with the 
mainland by bridges and a causeway. The harbor is one of the 
best in the West Indies. The western front of the island has a bold, 
precipitous shore, and here, commanding the entrance to the harbor, 
is the famous Morro Castle, long regarded as the strongest fortifica- 
tion in the AVest Indies. The city itself is surrounded by massive 
walls. The large public buildings and numerous churches give to the 
place an imposing appearance, especially when viewed from the 
harbor. The most noted buildings are the governor's palace, the 
Cuartal de Ballaja, used as quarters for the troops, the cathedral, 
and the city hall. Not half the houses are more than one story in 
height, and all are fiat-roofed and without chimneys. The more 
respectable peo])le live on the upper floors, while the gi'ound floors 
are occupied by negroes and the poorer class of whites. Most of 
the buildings are of brick ornamented witli stucco and painted in 



PUERTO RICO. 15 

various colors. The streets are straight and cross each other at 
right angles ; but they are ill-paved and, although swept every day, 
are seldom in good condition. For water the people depend mainly 
upon cisterns in which the rain that falls upon the roofs is collected. 
There are no sewers in the city, and the drainage is very imperfect. 
As a result of the accumulation of jfilth and the total inattention to 
sanitary conditions yellow fever and other diseases peculiar to the 
tropics are frequent. The population of San Juan is about 30,000, 
one half of which consists of negroes and mixed races. There 
are a few small factories where household articles, such as brooms, 
matches, and soap, are made. There are also electric light, gas, 
and ice works. 

Ponce, the second city of Puerto Rico, is on the southern side of 
the island, sixtv miles from San Juan. The main part of it is built 
on a plain about two miles from the seashore. A fine road con- 
nects it with Playa, the port, where are a good harbor and largo 
wharves. The population of Ponce is about 15,000 ; that of Plaj^a 
5,000, and both are practicalh^ one city. Ponce is similar in its 
general appearance to San Juan. Here are a customhouse, a bank, 
a theater, and an ice factory, gas works, three good hotels, and 
several churches. One of the churches is Protestant, and is said to 
be the only one of its kind in the Spanish West Indies. 

Arecibo, on the north coast, is the headquarters of the sugar 
industry and the chief town of one of the most fruitful regions on 
the island. Its harbor is little more than an open roadstead. Goods 
are carried to and from the interior in flat-bottomed boats on the 
Rio Grande, which here has its outlet. With better harbor facilities 
and good roads, Arecibo would develop into a place of no small 
commercial importance. It has now a population of about 7,000. 

Other cities and towns which have considerable trade and are 
well located for commerce are Mayaguez (population 20,000) in the 
west ; Aguadilla (5,000) in the northwest, connected with Mayaguez 
by a horse-car line ; Fajardo (8,779) on the east coast, noted for its 
manufacture of muscovado sugar; and Arroyo (1,200) in the south- 
east part, also an important sugar-making center. 

Other AVest India Islands acquired from Spain. — The 
islands of Mona, Culebra, and Yieques are politicallv united to and 
dependent upon Puerto Rico. Mona lies in the strait of the same 
name between Puerto Rico and Haiti. It is seven miles in lenofth 
and two in breadth, and its shores are bordered bv steep white cliffs 
170 feet in height, and full of grottoes or caves. 



16 PUERTO RICO. 

Culebra is a short distance from the eastern end of Puerto Rico. 
It has an area of about fifteen square miles and a population of 
500. It has no running streams, and water is obtained from a 
public cistern. Much fruit is raised here, and most of the trade is 
with the Danish island of St. Thomas. 

Vieques, thirteen miles east of Puerto Rico, has an area of 
more than one hundred square miles. The land is very fertile, and 
it has a population of about 6,000. Most of the people are engaged 
in agriculture and fruit raising. 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

Physical Features. — The Hawaiian Islands lie in the Pacific 
Ocean, 2,100 miles southwest of San Francisco. The most southern 
point of the group is in latitude 18° 50' JST., which corresponds to that 
of the northern coast of Puerto Rico, and of Yera Cruz, Mexico. The 
most northern point is in latitude 23° 5', which is nearly the same as 
that of Havana in Cuba, and of the extremity of the peninsula of 
Lower California. The islands extend in an irreg'ular line from 
Hawaii, the largest of the group, northwestwardly to a distance of 
about 400 miles. They are eight in number, besides several unin- 
habitable rockv islets. Their names and dimensions, beg-inning- at 
the southeast, are as follows : 

Length. Breadth. Area. 

Hawaii 90 miles. 74 miles. 4,380 square miles. 

Kalioolawe 11 " 8 " 55 " 

Lanai 17 " 9 " 110 " 

Maui 48 " 30 " 500 " 

Molokai 40 " 7 " 200 " 

Oahu 46 " 25 " 640 " 

Kauai 25 " 23 " 565 " 

Niihau 20 " 7 " 95 

The total area of these inhabited islands is 6,545 square miles, or 
a little more than two thirds that of the state of Vermont. Hawaii 
is about twice the size of Delaware ; Oahu is nearly half as large as 
Rhode Island. 

All the islands are of volcanic origin, and the larger ones are 
very mountainous. The loftiest point is Mauna Kea in Hawaii, 
13,805 feet in height. On the other islands the mountains rise to 
altitudes of between 4,000 and 5,000 feet. The entire group may be 
considered as consisting of the summits of a line of gigantic volcanoes 
risino; from the bottom of the sea. The volcanic forces to which 
their formation is due are now extinct, except in the island of Ha- 
waii. There the two volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kilauea, are in 
almost constant activity. The former has an altitude of 13,700 feet, 
and its terminal crater, which is almost circular, has a diameter of 
one and a quarter miles, with nearly vertical walls from 500 to 600 

17 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 19 

feet hiffh on the inner side. Kilauea, sixteen miles southeast of 
Mauna Loa, is only 4,400 feet in height, but it has the largest crater of 
any active volcano in the world. This crater is nine miles in circum- 
ference, and its vertical sides are not less than 1,000 feet in depth. 
At its bottom there is usually a glowing lake of lava. A third vol- 
cano on the same island is Hualalai, which has an elevation of 8,000 
feet, and on its slopes and summit numerous craters of from 700 to 
1,000 feet in diameter. 

On the sides of all the mountains, especially where volcanic 
action has long been unknown, are deep ravines, produced by the 
rainfalls and other denuding agencies during untold periods of time. 
In many places the shores of the islands terminate in abrupt head- 
lands, the cliffs sometimes rising to a height of 2,000 feet above the 
sea. There are no rivers, properly so called, but the surface is every- 
where broken and diversified with valleys and running streams. 

Mineral Products. — With the exception of the remnants of a 
few raised sea beaches of coral formation, all the rocks on the islands 
are of volcanic origin. The mineral products are neither numerous 
nor abundant. Limited deposits of native sulphur have been found ; 
also, common salt, sal ammoniac, feldspar, g3'psum, copperas, niter, 
and other volcanic proilucts. 

Climate. — The climate, although warm, differs in some essential 
features from that of other countries lying in the same latitude. '" Heie 
Americans and Europeans can work in the open air at all sea-sons of 
the year," says a pamphlet issued by the Hawaiian government. 
"The air is remarkably pure, coming over thousands of miles of 
ocean where all impurities must be removed. For nine months the 
fresh, and in many places strong, northeast trade winds constantly 
renew the atmosphere. As a consequence, contagious diseases are 
infrequent, and epidemics, when they occur, are usually of a mild 
type, rapidly run their course, and disappear." 

The temperature is remarkably uniform, the annual average 
beino- about 73°. It never falls below 54° and seldom rises to 88°. 
This equability is due to the vast expanse of surrounding water, 
which is always of nearly the same temperature, and thus tempers 
the winds which reach the islands. The sky is usually cloudless, 
there being not more than two days in the year when the sun is 
entirely hidden from morning till night. There are no cyclones, 
and thunderstorms seldom occur. The average yearly rainfall 
throughout all the islands is about 50 inches; but in some places, 
especially on the island of Hawaii, it exceeds 200 inches. It is 



20 THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

heavier on the windward side of the large islands than on the lee- 
ward. So entirely agreeable is the climate at all seasons and times 
that tl^e people spend the greater part of their lives out of doors. 

Soil. — The most productive parts of the islands are in the neighbor- 
hood of the coasts ; yet there are places even in this shore belt which 
are arid and almost barren. The interior is mountainous and rouffh, 
and in many localities the surface is covered with lava so recently 
deposited that no soil has formed. In other parts the soil is shal- 
low, and yet sufficient for the luxuriant growth of a variety of tropical 
plants. About one fortieth of the area of the islands, equal to more 
than 100,000 acres, is covered with a deep, rich soil adapted to the 
growth of the sugar cane. 

Vegetation. — The ravines and mountain slopes on the windward 
side are covered with forest trees and other tropical vegetation. The 
leeward side of the uplands, however, is comparatively bare. The 
forests contain an abundance of valuable timber. Cocoanut palms 
are numerous in the coast districts. Among the most remarkable 
trees are the screw pine and the candlenut tree, so called from the 
natives stringing together the kernels, which are very oily, and using 
them for candles. Almost all kinds of tropical fruits flourish here, 
but, with the exception of bananas and pineapples, no extensive or 
systematic cultivation of them has been attempted. 

Animals. — There are but few native animals. When the islands 
were discovered, in 1778, the only quadrupeds to be found were hogs, 
dogs, and rats. Now, however, goats and cattle run wild in the woods 
and upon the mountains. There is a bat which flies in the daytime ; 
but there are no reptiles except a species of small lizard. Fifty-three 
species of native birds have been described, and there are probably 
others to be discovered in the remote mountain districts. The house 
sparrow from Europe, and the maina and the turtle dove from China, 
are almost the only birds to be met with in the vicinity of the towns. 

Resources and Industries. — The leading industry is the culti- 
vation of sugar cane, for which the climate and a considerable area of 
soil seem especially adapted. The average yield is about 5,000 pounds 
of sugar per acre, .and in some favored localities 12,000 to 14,000 
pounds have been produced. In 1896 the exports of sugar amounted 
to 443,000,000 pounds. Large amounts of American capital have 
been invested in this industry, and to it the present prosperit}" of the 
islands is to a large extent due. 

Next to sugar the most important product is coffee, and more 
and more attention is devoted each year to its cultivation. It grows 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 21 

best on land 500 to 2.600 feet above the sea level, and its production 
does not require so much capital as does the cultivation of sugar cane. 
Within the last five years hundreds of thousands of trees have been 
planted, and coffee growing bids fair soon to become the chief indus- 
try of the islands. 

Rice grows in the marshy lantls, and 3'ields two crops a year. 
None but Chinamen, however, have succeeded in cultivating it with 
profit: and yet in 1895 the exports of this grain amounted to 3,768,- 
000 pounds. The taro, a plant indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands, is 
the principal food of the natives, its tubers being said to contain more 
nutriment for a given weight than any other vegetable food. It is 
estimated that one acre of this plant will yield enough food to sup- 
port twenty-five persons for a whole year. 

Almost all kinds of vegetables grow in profusion. Potatoes, 
cabbages, beans, radishes, and other similar food plants thrive and 
are of the finest qualitv. The cassava, a tuberous plant which fur- 
nishes the staple food for the people of Brazil, has lately been intro- 
duced into Hawaii. It is propagated easily, requires but little care, 
and yields abundantly. 

All kinds of fruit grow here. The banana trade, although still 
in its infancy, amounts to more than 100,000 bunches per year. 
Pineapples are cultivated and exported in large numbers. The guava 
grows wild, and its fruit is made into a jelly for which there is a 
large demand. Other fruits are oranges, limes, alligator pears, 
native peaches, mangoes, custard apples, and pomegranates. 

The tea plant has been introduced, and j^elds a tea of good 
qualit}". One eighth of an acre will produce more tea than a large 
family can consume, and its cultivation requires but little care. 

There are several varieties of fiber plants which seem to do well 
on the islands. Among these are the sisal hemp and the bowstring 
hemp, both of which are cultivated. Ramie is grown in Hawaii, and 
yields five or six crops a 3'ear. A silky fiber, called pulu, which 
grows on the stems of a certain species of tree fern, is much used for 
stuffing cushions, and large quantities of it are gathered and ex- 
ported. 

There are many large sheep farms, and in 1895 the exports of 
wool amounted to $227,000. The wild cattle in the mountains are 
hunted for the sake of their hides ; but cattle raising is not found 
profitable except for home consumption. In Maui hogs are fattened 
upon the corn and potatoes that are raised there, and a ready market 
is found for them amonof the Chinese residents of the islands. 



22 THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

Commerce. — The commercial importance of the Hawaiian 
Islands may readih^ be inferred b}' observing their peculiar geograph- 
ical position. They are almost on the direct line of travel between 
the Pacific coast of the United States and the ports of New Zealand 
and Australia. They are also but little removed from the accustomed 
routes from San Francisco to China and Japan. These facts have con- 
duced ver}^ largely to their rapid commercial development. The trade 
is practically monopolized by the United States, more than 99 per 
cent, of all the exports being sent to this country, and more than 79 
per cent, of the imports being American products. During the year 
1896, more than IGO vessels entered the harbor of Honolulu, a number 
of them making many trips. The total foreign trade of the islands 
that year amounted to more than $168,000,000. 

History. — The Hawaiian Islands were discovered by Captain 
Cook, an English navigator, on the ISth of January, 1778. He called 
them the Sandwich Islands, in honor of his patron, the Earl of Sand- 
wich. The natives received him with delight, believing him to be an 
incarnation of their god Lono. He visited Oahu, Niihau, and Kauai, 
and after a delay of three weeks proceeded northward to Alaska. 
Returning one year later, he anchored in Kealakekua Ba}' ; and there 
becoming involved in difficulties with the natives, he was killed b}" 
them on the 13th of Februar}^ 1779. At that time the islands were 
said to have a population of more than 300,000, and each island was 
ruled by an independent chief. In 1792, Captain George Yancouver, 
when on an exploring voyage, touched at Hawaii, and was kindly 
received by Kamehameha, its ruler. This chief was anxious to 
possess a vessel similar to those used by Europeans, and his visitors 
aided him in laying the keel of one. During two subsequent visits 
to the islands. Captain Yancouver supplied the natives with the seeds 
of various useful plants and with the first cattle and slieej) ever seen 
by them. In 1794, Kamehameha placed the island of Hawaii under 
the protection of Great Britain and hoisted the British flag at Keala- 
kekua. Ten yeai's later, Mr. Turnbull, an English voyager, found 
that ambitious chieftain in possession of a fleet of twenty small ves- 
sels, which he used for purposes of trade and warfare with the other 
islands. Lone: before his death in 1819, Kamehameha had made 
himself the master and king of the entire group. One of the first 
acts of his son and successor was the abolition of idolatry, which was 
accompanied by a general burning of temples and iilols throughout 
all the islands. In 1820 the first missionaries from America arrived 
and begfan their labors in Oahu. In the same vear the first whale 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 23 

ship called at Honolulu, and this place soon became the favorite 
stopping place for whalers in the North Pacific. In 1824: the king 
and queen were persuaded to visit England, and while there both 
died of measles. The first treaty with the United States was con- 
cluded in 1826, and was designed wholly for the promotion of trade 
with the Hawaiians. In 1840 a constitutional form of government 
was adopted, restricting the powers of the king and establishing a 
legislature of two houses, and a judiciary department similar to that 
of the United States. In IS-l-l the independence of the islands was 
guaranteed by Great Britain, France, and the United States. In 
1893, the arbitrary acts of Queen Liliuokalani in attempting to re- 
establish an absolute monarchy, led to her deposition and the forma- 
tion of a provisional government which was soon afterwards recog- 
nized by the United States. In the following year a convention 
of representatives from tlie various islands met at Honolulu, framed 
a new constitution, and on the 4th of July formally proclaimed the 
Republic of Hawaii. The form of government was modeled after 
that of the United States, and Sanford B. Dole was elected the first 
president. Repeated attempts were made to secure annexation to 
the United States, but it was not until July, 1898, that these efforts 
were successful. On the 12tli of August, the American flag was 
hoisted over the public buildings of Honolulu, and the Hawaiian 
Islands formally became a part of the great American republic. 

People. — The latest census returns, taken in 1896, give the total 
population of the islands as 109,020. The number of natives is 31,019, 
or not quite one third of the entire population. Besides these, there 
are about 8,000 people of mixed Haw^iiian descent. The Kanakas, as 
the natives are called, are noted for their gentleness and intelligence. 
Although individually brave and tenacious of their rights as freemen, 
they are a peace-loving race and easily governed. No other people 
have so readily adopted civilization, or become so soon and so 
thoroughlv Americanized. All classes can read and write, and the 
Eno-lish language is very generally spoken in preference to the mother 
tono-ue. Since the introduction of modern civilization upon the islands 
the native population has steadily decreased, being now barely one 
eierhth of wdiat it was estimated to be one hundred years ago. The 
immediate cause of this reduction is probably due in a large measure 
to the radical changes wdiicli civilization has made in the manners and 
customs of the people, depriving them of that lightheartedness and 
freedom from care which characterized their former life. 

Of the other inhabitants, there are 22,329 Japanese, 19,382 



24 THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

Chinese, 8,232 Portuguese, and 1,538 British, besides several hundreds 
of Germans, ISTorwegians, and people of various other nationahties. 
The Americans, who form the dominant class, number onlv 2,266, or 
about one fiftieth of the total population. 

Towns and Villag'es.— The capital and principal port of the 
Hawaiian Islands is Honolulu, situated on the south side of Oahu, on a 
narrow plain at the foot of a range of mountains. Here are the govern- 
ment houses, a fort, a customhouse, several churches, and numerous 
handsome residences. The harbor, which is more than a mile in length, 
has a wharfage front of 1,900 feet, and gives anchorage to the largest 
vessels. Here are several manufactories, including planing mills, 
rice mills, and iron mills. Population of city and surrounding dis- 
trict, 29,920. 

Hilo is the chief town of Hawaii. It is situated in the midst of 
most beautiful scenery, on the shores of a bay seven and a half miles 
wide and three miles deep. Surrounding it are extensive groves of 
cocoanut and breadfruit trees, and large plantations of sugar cane. 
The town contains several large buildings, both public and private, 
and ranks next to Honolulu in importance. It has about 12,000 
inhabitants. 

Kona is a settlement on Kealakekua Bay, on the west side of 
Hawaii. Near here Captain Cook was killetl, and a monument to 
his memory has been erected at the village of Kanwalda. 

On both Oahu and Hawaii are several other towns and villages, 
but they are small and of but little commercial importance. 

Lahaina is an important place on the west side of Maui. The 
town is principally composed of grass houses, and contains a govern- 
ment building and a seminary. Other flourishing villages on the 
same island are Wailuku, Kahului, and Spreckelsville. 

The island of Kauai is considered one of the most pleasant of the 
group, is well watered, and contains large plantations of sugar and 
coffee. There are a number of villages scattered along its coast, and 
it has several small but excellent harbors. 

Molokai, although one of the largest of the group, has but few 
inhabitants and no towns worthy of mention. One third of the 
entire island is a barren waste. On the north coast, on a peninsula 
surrounded on three sides by the ocean and on the fouith by a high 
precipice, is the leper settlement, to which all persons aftiicted with 
this disease are banished. Here are two small villages inhabited by 
lepers. 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

Physical Features. — East of the Indo-China peninsula, and 
separated from it by the China Sea, lies an important group of 
islands called by the Spaniards Islas Filipinas, and known to us as 
the Philippines. The distance from the mainland of Asia to the 
nearest of these islands is about 600 miles. To the north is the 
island of Formosa, about 150 miles away ; to the southwest, much 
nearer, is Borneo ; to the east stretches the vast Pacific Ocean. The 
southernmost point of this great archipelago is only about five and a 
half degrees from the equator, having nearly the same latitude as 
British Guiana in South America ; the northernmost point is in 
the same latitude as southern Cuba. The total length of the group, 
measured north and south, is about 1,000 miles ; its greatest width 
is 640 miles. Its entire area, including both the land surface and 
the land-locked water between the islands, is estimated to be about 
200,000 square miles. 

The number of islands here crowded together is unknown. The 
most trustworthy Spanish reports place it at 408, besides innumerable 
rocks and barren islets. Other authorities estimate the number 
variously at from 800 to 2,000. Much more than half of the land 
surface of the entire group is included in the two large islands, Luzon 
and Mindanao. Luzon, in the northern part, is long and narrow, 
being 480 miles in length, and having an area equal to that of Ohio, 
or a little over 41,000 square miles. Mindanao, in the south, is ver}^ 
irregular in form and about the size of Indiana. In no other archi- 
pelago in the world are there so many islands of considerable size 
massed together within a space so limited. All are so closely packed 
together that the group may be considered as a single island broken 
up and intersected by innumerable narrow passages of water. 

The Philippine Islands form links in the chain of upheaval which 
extends from Kamchatka to the Sunda Islands, and have been 
largely formed b}" volcanic forces, some of which are still in active 
operation. The two most important volcanoes in the archipelago 
are Apo, in Mindanao, and Mayon, in Luzon. These are probably 
the loftiest peaks, their summits reaching a height of from 8,000 to 
10,000 feet. The surface is everywhere broken and uneven, the only 

35 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. • 27 

plains being the alluvial bottom lands that border the rivers. Along 
the seashore large tracts of upheaved coral reefs are sometimes seen, 
and raised sea beaches are found at considerable distances inland. 

Owing to the peculiar disposition of the mountain ranges, space 
is afforded on the larger islands for the development of many water 
courses. Some of these are of considerable length and volume. The 
largest river is the Rio Grande de Caga3"tin, in Luzon, which has 
numerous tributaries and flows through a course of nearly 200 miles. 
Surpassing it in length, but not in volume, is the Rio Agusan, in Min- 
danao, which has its source near the southern coast of the island, and 
after flowing 236 miles, falls into the Bay of Butuan on the opposite 
side. 

Climate. — Lying entirely within the torrid zone, the Philippines 
have a purely tropical climate. Since, however, they extend through 
nearly 15° of latitude, the weather in the extreme northern portions 
differs somewhat from that in the far south. During the year there 
are three seasons : the cold, the hot, and the wet. The first, which 
to Europeans is the most enjoyable of all, extends from November 
to March ; the air is crisp and bracing, the sky is generally clear, 
and the mean monthly temperature is between 77° and 81°. The 
hot season, which comes next, continues until July ; the hottest 
month is May, when the mercury sometimes rises to 100°. During 
the wet season the rain comes down in torrents, the rivers and lakes 
are swollen, and the low-lying valleys are flooded. The average 
annual rainfall at Manila is about seventy-five inches ; the most rain 
falls in September, the least in February. From November to April 
the monsoons, or trade winds, blow regularly from the northeast ; 
during the rest of the year they are from the southeast. The 
northern islands are in the track of the typhoons, violent cyclonic 
storms of wind and rain which have their origin in the Pacific Ocean 
and whose course in the Philippines is therefore westward. They 
never extend farther south than 9° north latitude, and hence are 
unknown in the southern islands. 

Minerals. — Besides the rocks of modern volcanic origin, coral 
reefs, and coralline limestone, the geologist finds here gneiss, schists, 
and other metamorphic rocks ; and in the north of Luzon there are 
granites, stratified limestone, conglomerates, and beds of marl. Two 
large coal fields are known to exist ; one in the southern part of 
Luzon, the other occupying the western slopes of Cebu and the east- 
ern slopes of Negros. Mines have been worked on a small scale, but 
the difficulty of transportation has hindered their development. 



28 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

Gold has been found in the more mountainous and inaccessible 
districts. In the northern part of Luzon, copper is abundant. 
Several paying mines are now in operation, some of them being 
owned and controlled b}^ European companies. Iron ore of an 
excellent quality occurs in Luzon and the smaller adjoining islands. 
Lead and mercury have been discovered, but nowhere in large quan- 
tities. Great deposits of sulphur exist in the neighborhood of some 
of the extinct volcanoes. 

Forest Products. — The forests of the Philippines contain a 
variety of trees, many of which are of great value. Among those 
common to other parts of the world are cedar, ebony, iron wood, 
logwood, teak, and others equally familiar. Besides these, there are 
hundreds of varieties that are found nowhere else. The cocoanut 
palm flourishes everywhere, and every part of it is utilized by the 
natives. Bamboos, sometimes growing to a height of fifty feet, are 
abundant ; canes, rattans, and other varieties of the calamus family 
are found in the forests ; and these are made to serve a great variety 
of purposes. Mangoes, jack-fruits, medlars and all kinds of Malayan 
fruits grow in profusion. 

Ag:ricvilture. — The most important agricultural products are 
tobacco, Manila hemp, sugar cane, and coffee. Until 1881, tobacco 
was a government monopoly ; each district was obliged to furnish 
annually a certain amount, and peasants were forced to devote them- 
selves to the tobacco crop when something else would have been 
more profitable. Manila hemp, or abaca, is a plant peculiar to the 
Philippines, and has never been successfully grown elsewhere. This 
plant is not a hemp, but a species of banana plant, quite similar in 
appearance to that which produces the well-known fruit. The fiber, 
which is used for making ropes, cordage, and paper, is obtained from 
the })lant by the most primitive methods. The finest sugar comes 
from Pana}' ; but it is also extensively cultivated in Luzon, Negros, 
and elsewhere. The quantity of sugar produced is enormous, the 
amount exported to foreign countries averaging 250,000 tons annually. 
Coffee is produced in nearly all of the islands, and large quantities 
are exported to European countries. Rice is extensively grown, and 
is the principal food of the natives. The cacao bean, which the 
Spaniards introduced from Mexico, grows luxuriantly, and from it 
chocolate of an excellent quality is produced. The Spaniards also 
introduced Indian corn from America, and this grain is now culti- 
vated to some extent. Other agricultural products include cotton, 
pepper, ginger, and vanilla. 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 29 

Animals. — The varieties of animals in the Philippines are few. 
Deer are found in the wild woods of nearly all the islands. White 
monkeys live in the forests of Mindanao, and several kinds of lemu- 
roids are common. The only beast of pre}^ is a species of wild cat. 
Alligators and turtles are found in some of the rivers ; and there are 
many species of lizards. Other reptiles include the boa, the python, 
and a small but very poisonous snake which lurks in the grass, and 
resembles a rice leaf in appearance. There are more than 200 species 
of birds, including many varieties known only in the Philippines. 
Insects are numerous during all seasons of the year. The butterflies 
are remarkable for their beauty, and the ants for their destructiveness. 
Among domesticated animals, the buffalo is the most important, it 
being used in all kinds of agricultural work. The horses are small, 
but well shaped and hardy. Cattle of European origin, and goats, 
cats, and dogs are common everywhere. 

Manufactures and Commerce. — ^The natives are skilled in 
weaving both cotton and silk ; but all their work is done by the most 
primitive methods. In Manila and elsewhere many women are em- 
ployed in making hats, mats, cigars and cigar cases, and other light 
articles. Shipbuilding is carried on to some extent. There are also- 
small tanneries, and shops for the manufacture of farming imple- 
ments, wagons, and carts. But there are no large manufactories of an}' 
kind. Trade with the Philippines has been greatly hindered by the 
restrictions placed upon it by the Spanish government. No dealings 
with other countries were permitted until in 1809, when the English 
succeeded in establishing a commercial house at Manila. Manila re- 
mained the only port open to foreign commerce until 18L2. In 1896 
the total imports into the islands amounted to $10,631,250, and the 
exports exceeded $20,1Y5,000. Nearly half of the imports during 
that year were from Great Britain and France ; more than half the 
exports were to Great Britain and the United States. Domestic com- 
merce is greatly impeded by poor roads and lack of facilities for 
transportation. One railroad, 123 miles in length, has been built in 
Luzon, extending from Manila into Pangasinan. 

History. — Twenty-nine years after Columbus had discovered 
America, the famous Portuguese navigator, Magellan, made the first 
voyage across the Pacific. The squadron which he commanded had 
been equipped and sent out by the king of Spain, and therefore all 
the lands that were discovered were claimed as Spanish possessions. 
On the 16th of March, 1521, he came in sight of the southern point 
of Samar Island. Not finding a safe place to land, he turned his 



30 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

vessels southward, and soon arrived at the small island of Malhou. 
It was the day sacred to St. Lazarus, and he therefore called the 
group St. Lazarus Islands. Making his way through narrow chan- 
nels and amono' numerous rocks and islets, he arrived not lono^ after- 
wards at a safe harbor on the east coast of Cebu. The natives were 
friendly, and their ruler besought the Spaniards to aid him in an ex- 
pedition against his enemies. Magellan consented, and while leading 
an attack upon the savages of Mactan, a little island at the mouth of 
the harbor, he was killed. 

It was many years before the Spaniards made any further 
attempt to explore the archipelago. The islands were known to 
them as the Islas del Poniente, the Islands of the West, while the 
Portuguese, who had reached this part of the world from tiie oppo- 
site direction, called them the Eastern Islands. In 1542, Lopez de 
Villalobos, crossing the Pacific from Mexico, arrived with five ves- 
sels off the coast of Samar, to which he gave the name of Isla Fili- 
pina, in honor of Prince Philip, afterwards Piiilip II. of Spain. 

In 1565, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, with a force of 400 men and 
a band of Augustine monks, founded the settlement of San Miguel 
in Cebu. It is said that within six years the greater part of the 
archipelago was reduced to subjection ; but this, of course, extended 
only to the more accessible parts adjoining the coasts. During the 
progress of this conquest, . the name Islas Filipinas first came to be 
applied to the entire archipelago. In 1571 Manila was taken, and 
made the seat of government. 

For 200 years but little occurred to vary the comparatively 
monotonous history of the Philippines. The Dutch and the Portu- 
guese attempted more than once to deprive Spain of some j)ortion of 
her Philippine possessions, but never with success. In 1702, an Eng- 
lish fleet of thirteen men-of-war appeared in the harbor of j\Linila. 
The Spaniards there had not even heard of the war, and were 
wholly unprepared for an attack. The city was bombarded and 
forced to surrender, and a ransom of $5,000,000 was demanded. 
At the conclusion of peace in the following year, the city was i-e- 
stored to S])ain. 

The tyranny of the Spanish rulers and the oppressive taxation 
finally produced among the more civilized natives a desire for free- 
dom. In 1896 the growing discontent cuhuinated in an insurrection. 
On the 1st of May, 1898, war having been declared between Spain 
and the United States, an American fleet, under command of Com- 
modore Dewey, entered the harbor of Cavite, in Manila l);ty, antl 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 31 

destroyed or captured the entire Spanish fleet stationed there. In the 
following September the city of Manila, with its environs and adja- 
cent territor}', was surrendered to the American land and naval forces. 
Upon the conclusion of peace the entire group was ceded to the 
United States. 

People. — When Magellan discovered the islands, nearly 400 years 
ago, he found some of the inhabitants partly civilized. They had a 
written language, and were somewhat advanced in the arts of weav- 
ing and metal working. These were probably Malays, and their 
descendants now form by far the largest part of the population. 
Among the present Malay inhabitants, the Tagals, who live chiefly 
in Luzon and the adjacent islands, are the most important. Nearly 
all profess adherence to the Roman Catholic Church. Their number 
is estimated at 1,500,000. The Yisayas, who inhabit the islands to 
the south of Luzon and to the north of Mindanao, are also of the 
Malay race. Most of them are professed Christians, and do not 
differ essentially from the Tagals ; but among the mountains there 
are still several wild tribes of Visayas who refuse to become civilized. 
A third class of Malays are those knoAvn among the Spaniards as 
Moros, and who inhabit the southern parts of the archipelago. 
These are Mohammedans, and lack that gentleness of character 
which distinguishes their northern kinsmen. They are the pirates 
of the Philippines, and for more than two centuries they were 
the terror of the seas. Besides these three principal Malayan peo- 
ples there are several other tribes, differing from one another in 
many important respects. 

Chinese immigrants and Chinese half-breeds form a very im- 
portant element in the population of the Philippines. They are the 
merchants and shopkeepers of the islands, and nearly all the banking 
houses and general stores are managed by them. There are said 
to be more than 30,000 of them now in Manila alone, and there is 
hardly a village in the archipelago without one or more of them 
among its inhabitants. 

In the interior of Luzon, Panay, Negros, Mindoro, and Min- 
danao live the negritos, descendants probably of the first inhabit- 
ants of these islands. They are a dwarfish people, and their intel- 
ligence is of a very low type. They are now but few in number. 

Besides the numerous races of natives, there are between 15,000 
and 20,000 Spaniards, or people of pure Spanish blood, who have 
their homes here. By far the greater number of these live in Manila. 

No accurate census of the population of the Philippines has ever 



32 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

been taken ; but it is supposed to be about 7,000,000. This gives an 
average density of about GO per square mile of land surface. There 
are said to be as many distinct tribes as there are islands; and there 
are no fewer than 500 different languages and dialects spoken among 
the inhabitants. 

Keligioii and Education. — The established church of the 
Philippines is the Koman Catholic. The ecclesiastical affairs of the 
island are under the control of an archbishop and three bishops. 
The clergy do their work faithfully and devotedl}^ and have exerted 
an immense beneficial influence upon the natives, over whom they 
have great power. 

Education is much neglected. Although in nearly ever}^ town 
or village there is a school for natives under control of the govern- 
ment, neither the quantity nor quality of the instruction would be 
considered satisfactory according to American standards. 

Cities and Towns. — Manila, the capital and largest city, is 
situated on Manila Bay, in the island of Luzon. It is a walled city, 
surrounded by a moat, and, where it does not front on the bay or 
river, bv an outer ditch. The streets are well paved and lighted. 
Good brido-es connect the city with its numerous suburbs. The 
population in 1898 is about 150,000. Cavite, on a low point of 
land 15 miles by road from Manila, is an important marine arsenal 
and military station. Here vessels are built and repaired, and docks 
have been provided for gunboats and also larger vessels. Iloilo, in 
the island of Panay, has a large trade in sugar and in the other 
products of the Yisayan Islands. Next to Manila, it is the most 
important city of the Philippines. Population, about 11,000. Cebu, 
the capital of the island of the same name, has a cathedral, a court- 
house, a telegraph station, and several handsome private edifices. 
Population, 35,243. Besides the places mentioned above, there are 
several hundred cities and towns having a population of from 1,000 
to 20,000 each. 



M^^ 



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